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The anti-diabetic activity of berberine is attributed to its multifaceted mechanisms, including the activation of the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway, activation of GLUT1 and AKT/GLUT4 signaling pathway, enhancement of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) levels, upregulation of insulin receptor (InsR) mRNA expression, inhibition of PEPCK and G6Pase expression, suppression of inflammation (IL-1, IL-6, TNF-, COX-2, and iNOS), and regulation of lipid metabolism, among others (Shrivastava et al., 2023)

Since this initial report, many investigations using both in vitro and in situ preparations have explored the role that redox disturbances play in the development of muscular fatigue and a majority of studies have concluded that scavenging ROS via enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidants delays muscle fatigue during submaximal contractions (24, 42, 214, 275, 329, 330, 388)

Lanier JB, Mote MB, Clay EC

Glutamine up-regulates MAPK phosphatase-1 induction via activation of Ca 2+ ERK cascade pathway